功能词的应用 Use of Function Words
（一）功能词的普遍性与重要性
功能词又叫结构词，是指没有单独完整的词汇意义，更多是语法意义或语法功能的词。常见的有代词(she, that, her, it, what等)、数词(one, two, third等)、冠词(a, an, the)、助动词(can, would, should, have, do等)、介词(to, with, in, at, for等)、连词(but, not, or, and等)，其数量相对实词比较的少。
功能词虽然相对实义词数量较少，其出现的频率却相当地高。功能词通常起着句法构建的作用，对于衔接句子，表达清楚句子内部乃至整篇文章的逻辑关系，起着至关重要的作用。因此，我们在汉译英之前，先要把这些耳熟能详的功能词掌握住，对于功能词特别是功能词组能手到擒来。
六级翻译中常用连接功能词或功能词组表达如下：
表示时间顺序的:first, later, next, then, finally, before, after, soon, previously, immediately, formerly, subsequently, meanwhile, presently, initially, ultimately,…
    表示举例的:for example ,for instance, such as ,…
    表示列举的:and ,firstly ,second, third, last, another, next, finally, furthermore…
    表示补充的:also ,in addition, and, further, another, as well as, besides, too, either,…
    表示比较或反差的:
比较类like, likewise, similarly, as, at the same time, as well as, in comparison, both, all…
        反差类 on the other hand, in contrast, however, but, in spite of, despite, nevertheless, on the contrary, instead, rather, though, yet, regardless, although, unlike, even though, whereas,…
    表示强调的:important to note, most, above all, especially valuable, a central issue, especially relevant, should be noted, the most substantial issue, remember that ,a major event, the principal item, pay particular attention to, the chief factor, most of all, a significant factor, a primary concern, a key feature, the main value,…
    表示因果类的:because, accordingly, for this reason, hence, resulting, as a result, so ,then ,thus, therefore, since, consequently,…
    表示总结类的:thus ,in short, to conclude, in brief, in the end, in summary, to sum up, in conclusion, finally, therefore, as already stated, all in all, in a word, in general, it may be briefly summed up as follows; from what has been mentioned above; we can come to the conclusion that…
 
（二）功能词翻译现象关注点
除了对上述连词功能词的记忆与熟悉之外，功能词在翻译与写作中有一些关注点，先通过例子来初步展示。
1）功能词在句中位置
Having spent some time in the city, he had no trouble ______(到去历史博物馆的路). (finding the way to the history museum)
To make donations or for more information, please ________(按以下地址和我们联系). (contact us at the following address)
此两处介词分别引导后置的定语和置后的地点状语。
2）功能词的省略
有一次，他们大吵了一番。(They had a big quarrel once.)
从前他爸爸是个打渔的。他过去也许和我们现在一样穷。(They say his father was a fisherman. Maybe he was as poor as we are.)
汉译英时，量词与时间介词都省略了，而分别以冠词和动词时态来表现。
3）功能词的添加
门口放着一堆雨伞，少说也有十二把，五颜六，大小不一。(In the doorway lay at least twelve umbrellas of all sizes and colors.)
  He designed the first suspension bridge, 把美观与功能完美地结合起来.(which combined beauty and function perfectly.)
分别在名词前增译了一个介词和一个关系代词。
4）某些功能词在句中的特殊语法结构
The more you explain, _________________(我愈糊涂).（the more confused I become）
Leaving one’s job, ____________________,（不管是什么工作）, is a difficult change even for those who look forward to retiring. （no matter what job it is）
5）功能词的搭配与正确选用
The new government was accused____________ (未实现其降低失业率的承诺). (of failure to fulfill its promise to reduce the unemployment rate)
Specialists in intercultural studies say that it is not easy to___(适应不同文化中的生活)。(adapt oneself to life/living in different cultures)
6）记住常用功能词及惯用表达
__________(多亏了一系列的新发明), doctors can treat this disease successfully.(Thanks to a series of new inventions)
I am going to pursue this course, _____________(无论我要作出什么样的牺牲). (no matter at what expense (cost)/ no matter what I have to sacrifice (pay)/ would have to sacrifice (pay))
7）代词的正确把握
该公司今年产值比去年要高。(The output of this company this year is higher than that of last year.)
露西睁开眼睛，眼里充满了泪水。event是什么词性(Lucy opened his eyes. They were filled with tears.)
Please come here at ten tomorrow morning ______________(如果你方便的话).(if it is at your convenience/if it is convenient for you.)
只是在这个时候我才开始怀疑，我的精力究竟能不能公诸于众呢！It was only then that I began to have doubts whether my story would ever be told.
代词可以让句型简化，或更为凝练、正式，或加强语气。
8）助动词的复合用法
I can’t boot my computer now. Something ____________(一定出了毛病) with its operation system. (must have happened)
If you had followed my advice, _____________________(你就不会陷入麻烦).(you wouldn’t have put yourself in trouble)
    有一些复杂的情态助动词的复杂或符合用法出现在翻译与写作当中。
9）实义词的功能化
他是一个脱离低级趣味的人。(He is a man above vulgar interest.)
看来我们免不了要碰上一场暴风雨了。(It looks as if we are in for a storm.)
朱迪的第一个妻子所生的儿子来和他们同住。(Judy’s small son by his first marriage comes
to live with them.) 
10）数词的表达
在汉英翻译中，我们经常会遇到数量增加、减少的问题。然而英汉两种语言在倍数增减的表达上存在着很大差异请读者试着翻译这个句子：